Result of using each type of power

There are five main organizational theories; you can expect at least 2 in the exam:

These are in the exam because they are necessary for gaining cooperation from the team, and for encouraging and building the team.

1.     McGregor’s Theory of X and Y

X manager says, “People are lazy and don’t want to work.”

Y manager says, “People are self-motivated and want to achieve.”

McGregor says you get what you expect from people (self-fulfilling prophesy)

2.     Ouchi’s Theory Z

Workers and management cooperate for the good of the organization (win-win).

To recall these theories remember “bad, good, better” (X, Y, Z)

3.     Expectancy Theory

There are two parts to this theory. Firstly, people expect to be rewarded for their effort. Secondly, if you can instil an expectancy into someone then they will aspire to achieve it. E.g. if you encourage someone to believe that they are exceptional in some area, and treat them as if they are, they will start to become exceptional.

4.     Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

Maslow suggested a hierarchy of human needs and said the each lower need must be (essentially) met before moving to the next higher level, ultimately arriving and self-actualisation. Maslow’s theory was not derived empirically (i.e. by research) and has been proved to be wrong in practice.

5.     Herzberg’s Motivation Theory

People have two sets of needs – motivators, and hygiene factors.

Having their hygiene factors met does not motivate people, but the absence of hygiene factors demotivates and reduces performance. The motivators do motivate, but only if the hygiene factors are maintained.

6.     Aldefer / McClellen

People have a need for Achievement, Power and Affiliation, simultaneously and in differing quantities.

• The First three theories (McGregor, Ouchi and Expectancy) are Process Theories (they explore how personal factors interact and influence each other to produce behaviors)
• The others (Maslow, Hertzberg and Aldelfer / McClellen) are Content Theories (they try to find a link between intrinsic factors and certain behaviors)

Conflicts and disagreements in a project come mainly from the following (listed in order). Learn these and their solutions:

5. Administrative policies and procedures
6. Project costs
7. Personalities – note this is in last position, see “Other tips” below

For the exam memorise the first four.

The first three account for 50% of the conflicts

These conflicts may be solved by:

Method	Style	Example/Description
Problem solving (Confronting)	Integrative	“If we work on this together, we can find the best solution.” PMI consider this to be the best method of dealing with problems. “Confronting” refers to confronting the problem – not the people.
Forcing	Win-lose	“I’m the boss, you’ll do as I say, or leave the project.”
Compromising	Compromise	We just each need a little give and take here
Smoothing	Yield-lose	Let’s not worry about this too much. I know you feel your complaints are valid, but when you look at it you both have a lot of common ground. The method focuses on the similarity between the parties, rather than on their differences.
Withdrawal	Lose-leave	Do whatever you like; I really don’t care as long as it gets done.

• Problem Solving (Confronting), forcing and compromising provide solutions, but Problem Solving is the preferred method.
• Smoothing and Withdrawal provide just temporary fixes.

For the exam (important – this is the modern view of conflict):

·         Conflict is an inevitable consequence of organisational interactions

·         Conflict is not always bad, it can be beneficial

·         Conflict is inevitable in projects because of the conflicting needs of many stakeholders

·         Conflict is inevitable because the PM doesn’t have absolute power

·         Conflict is inevitable because the PM usually has to negotiate with line managers for resources

·         Remember that the PM should be proactive – looking for conflicts that need to be resolved before they become a big issue. BUT the PM may not be the one who solves the problemÜ

·         Conflict is resolved though identifying the root cause

·         Conflict is resolved by person involved and immediate manager

Ü Tips on conflict resolution:

When you get a question about conflict resolution, ask yourself “Who has authority over the situation?” and “How will the customer be served best?”

The PM should not try to resolve directly unless:

·         The PM has authority over the situation (if you don’t then it should be solved by the functional (line) manager, senior manager) or

·         It’s a Professional Responsibility breach (eg ethics, breaking the law, policies)

RAM - Responsibility Assignment Matrix, links the WBS tasks to the people or groups who will do them. Also called a "RACI" chart (not Iraqi), because it indicates responsibilities by using the letter R, A, C or I (for Responsible, Accountable, Consult or Inform).

A Matrix-based chart looks somewhat similar but links people to the WBS tasks, using time instead of responsibility.

For the exam – when asked to compare these two – RAM does not show time, and Matrix-based does not shoe responsibilities.

In a functional organisation, the PM has no authority.

In a weak matrix organisation, the PM is weaker that the line managers.

In a strong matrix organisation, the PM is stronger that the line managers.

In a Projectized organisation, the PM is god.

A tight matrix (aka War Room), is where all team members are located in one room or office, throughout the project.

How to fail this exam in one easy step

I have heard it said that many people believe they have failed the exam through simply not understanding the role of the project manger.

How to avoid this trap

Learn the project manager’s role! J

Essentially, the project manager:

• Is assigned the role as early as possible, and certainly no later than Project Charter stage.
• Is in charge of the project but not necessarily the resources (consider a matrix organisation, “your” resources actually belong to functional managers).
• Must be given the necessary powers to successfully complete the project.
• Does not have to be an expert in the project’s main technology (it doesn’t matter what you think – PMBOK is right during the exam).
• Must be able to solve problems with scope, quality, time, resources etc
• Is the only person that can bring together all of the project component into a single entity to satisfy the stakeholders
• Maintains control over the project by measuring performance and taking corrective action where necessary.
• Leads and directs the project planning
• Assists the stakeholders (including the project team) during project execution
• Is proactive
• Must have the authority to stop actions or processes as required.
• Accountable for project failures
• Understands professional responsibility (do you? Revise the notes from Session 1 and read the PMI sheet again)
• Initiates team building early in the project, Incorporates team building activities into all project activities and attends to team building throughout the life of the project.
• Is responsible for enhancing the ability of stakeholders to contribute as individuals as well as enhance the ability of the team to perform as a team.

Other tips

Part of the PM’s job is to assign resources at the planned times – don’t let line managers dump resources on you when you’re not ready for them. They dump resources on your project because they often get a bonus if they can keep their people busy. And of course if the resources are in your team then they will be paid from the project budget instead of the line manager’s budget.

Check your project constraints; if a union is listed here then it becomes a stakeholder. And if your organisation has recruitment polices they should be listed in the constraints.

In the Conflicts and Disagreements above, note that “Personalities” is rated last not first – this will probably appear in the exam.

The WBS is a team building tool – this is a likely question. It is considered a team-building tool because the team help create it, they can see the whole project at a glance, and where they fit it. It can be used to shoe the importance of “their” project and responsibilities to others. It can be used to help in the induction process of new team members.

Learn PM leadership styles. Studies suggest that as the PM is the one with the oversight at the beginning of the project then they should initially provide more direction, but then during execution change style to coaching, facilitating and supporting.

When a problem arises, consulting with the project team is not always the best first option. The PM should have the best overview and can often deal with problems simply. And the PM gets blamed for bad decisions.

PS I’ve made every effort to get this right to help you in your exam – but if I’ve missed something please let me know.

Regards, Jim Owens PMP